This article examines the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Türkiye’s public diplomacy. Firstly, it discusses how NGOs are positioned as a public diplomacy actor in the public diplomacy literature. The second part emphasizes that the changes and transformations in the communication and media order also affect international activities such as public diplomacy. Finally, the last section analyzes the role of NGOs in public diplomacy activities of Türkiye. As seen in the new public diplomacy approach and the internationalization of political communication strategies, it has been argued that NGOs have a multifaceted and multidimensional field of action in public diplomacy. Although NGOs are more prominent in public diplomacy with their humanitarian aid dimension, they can also engage in vital activities for public diplomacy such as lobbying, producing a positive agenda, and establishing trust in the relevant society, and Türkiye should position NGOs in this way in its public diplomacy efforts.

Keywords: Public diplomacy, new public diplomacy, political communication, non-governmental organizations, strategic communication.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8213 [HTML]

This study investigates the prevalence of xenophobia among Erasmus students and examines its relationship with their experiences and cultural integration. While the Erasmus program has effectively promoted intercultural communication, awareness, and a sense of European identity, insufficient attention has been given to the xenophobia experienced by students within the program. This mixed-method study addresses this gap by surveying 237 Turkish Erasmus students, revealing that despite their high levels of satisfaction with the program, xenophobia remains a significant issue, particularly for Turkish participants. The findings highlight the need for a stronger emphasis on social inclusion, equity, tolerance, and mutual understanding within the Erasmus framework. The study concludes that although the Erasmus program has significant potential to facilitate cultural integration, additional efforts are required to address and mitigate, if not eliminate, xenophobia and racism effectively.

Keywords: Xenophobia, Racism, Turkish Erasmus students, European identity, intercultural communication, tolerance.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8351 [HTML]

Following their independence in 1991, the Republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan developed active relations with major global and regional actors, including the United States, Russia, Europe, Türkiye, and China. Among these, China emerged as a particularly influential partner by deepening its economic and diplomatic engagement. Kazakhstan, the largest and wealthiest of the three, holds special strategic importance due to its abundant natural resources and its geographic position as a gateway to the West. Consequently, this study first examines the dynamics of the Chinese-Kazakh relationship, focusing on China’s use of debt-trap diplomacy within the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The analysis adopts dependency theory to explain the nexus between debt reliance and economic growth, supported by data on bilateral trade volumes and BRI-related projects. The paper also highlights the rise of Sinophobia in Kazakhstan, reflecting growing mistrust toward Chinese influence. Before concluding, the study compares China’s debt and trade relations across Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, assessing the broader scope of debt-trap diplomacy in the region. Using a descriptive case study and documentary analysis, the paper argues that China employs debt-trap diplomacy both to expand markets for its goods and to advance strategic goals by fostering one-sided economic dependence in Turkestan republics.

Keywords: Turkestan Republics, China, Debt-Trap Diplomacy, BRI Project, Sinophobia.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8350 [HTML]

The administrative structure of the Crimean Khanate was based on a land system with a hierarchical division between the ruling dynasty and the tribal aristocracy. This system maintained the administrative traditions established during the Mongol Empire and was refined during the Golden Horde period and later adopted by various successor khanates. Despite the Crimean Khanate’s integration into Ottoman political spheres from the late 15th century on, the land system, deeply rooted in tribal aristocracy, persisted. This study explores the Khanate’s land system and its lexicon within the broader context of Mongolian administrative paradigms established by Chinggis Khan and adapted by the Golden Horde. The terminological and functional aspects of the administrative structure are examined through an analysis of primary sources, including diplomatic correspondence and significant historical documents from the Crimean Khanate period. The investigation includes a philological and historical analysis of institutional terminology to trace its lexicosemantic evolution through historical transitions.

Keywords: Crimean Khanate, Old Crimean Tatar, state institutions, land system, terminology.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8280 [HTML]

Bu çalışmada Azerbaycan, Kazakistan, Özbekistan, Kırgızistan ve Tacikistan ekonomileri için enflasyon belirsizliği ile enflasyon oranları arasındaki ilişki güncel ve alternatif bir yaklaşım olan zamanla değişen stokastik volatilite modeli kullanılarak incelenmiştir. Farklı yaklaşımlara karşı dirençli sonuçlar elde edebilmek amacıyla çalışmada statik stokastik volatilite modeline dayalı bulgulara da yer verilmiştir. Bu modellerin tahmininde Bayesyen yaklaşımına dayalı Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algoritmasından yararlanılmıştır. Çalışma bulguları inceleme kapsamındaki tüm Türk Cumhuriyetleri için enflasyon belirsizliğinin enflasyon oranları üzerindeki etkisinin pozitif ve istatistiki olarak anlamlı olduğu sonucuna işaret etmektedir. Bulgular ayrıca bu etkinin özellikle Tacikistan, Kazakistan ve Özbekistan ekonomileri için çok daha belirgin olarak ortaya çıktığını göstermektedir. Bir dönem gecikmeli enflasyon oranlarının ise cari dönem enflasyon belirsizliği üzerinde istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir etkisinin bulunmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Bulgular enflasyonla mücadele, makroekonomik istikrarın sağlanması ve sürdürülebilir ekonomik büyüme oranlarına ulaşılabilmesi açısından ilgili Türk Cumhuriyetleri’ndeki politika yapıcılara önemli bilgiler sunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk Cumhuriyetleri, enflasyon, enflasyon belirsizliği, güncel stokastik volatilite modeli, geleneksel stokastik volatilite modeli.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.7952 [HTML]

This article examines the portrayals of Hünkâr Hacı Bektaş (d. c. 1270), who has been one of the most influential velis (friends of God) among warriors and diverse dervish groups throughout the centuries. The persona of Hacı Bektaş has acquired new meanings within the transformed cultural and social contexts in different historical eras. This short analysis is limited to three intertextually related texts from the fifteenth century: the Ḫı żırnāme (1476), the Ṣaltuḳnāme (c. 1480), and the Velāyetnāme (c. 1481). Among these three works, while the Ṣaltuḳnāme and the Velāyetnāme have been subjects of numerous studies, as they include crucial details for understanding the historical events in pre-Ottoman and Ottoman times in Anatolia, the Ḫı żırnāme did not attract the attention of scholars until recently. With a particular focus on the portrayals of Hacı Bektaş in these three intertextually related texts, this study aims to generate new research questions for future studies about the historical image of Hacı Bektaş.

Keywords: Hacı Bektaş, Hızırnâme, Saltuknâme, Velayetnâme, portrayal.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8182 [HTML]

This study compares locative existential sentences in Kyrgyz and Turkish languages focusing on the definiteness effect (DE) and their information structure (IS). The DE is tested looking at the eligibility of various types of Noun Phrases (NPs), including proper nouns, pronouns and NPs with demonstrative pronouns, as pivots in these sentences. The IS roles are analysed through the scrambling of the pivot NPs. The findings indicate that neither Kyrgyz nor Turkish language is subject to the DE. It is also observed that the pivot NPs function as the focus, whereas the locative phrases are the topic of the sentences in both languages. The study concludes that Kyrgyz and Turkish existential sentences are nearly similar in terms of the DE and IS. The findings hint that the DE is uncommon among those languages which employ no definite articles.

Keywords: Locative existential sentences, definiteness effect, information structure, Kyrgyz language, Turkish language.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8444 [HTML]

Dating methods for rock art have traditionally been divided into two categories: traditional and scientific, both with challenges regarding accuracy. The universal appeal of rock art drives scholars to decode its imagery and underlying narratives, requiring an understanding of its origins, context, and influences. This research aims to evaluate the precision of lichenometry as a technique for dating rock art. Fieldwork conducted in 2023-2024 across several sites in the Örnök region of Kyrgyzstan spanning villages between Balykchy and Cholpon-Ata marks the first use of this method for rock art in the country. The study seeks to provide new insights and potentially challenge established dating methodologies. By applying lichenometry in this context, the research intends to refine current tools used in archaeological and historical studies, improving our understanding of the age of rock art. The results of the fieldwork are presented in the findings and conclusion sections.

Keywords: Rock art, lichenometry, dating rock art, ancient artwork, Kyrgyzstan.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.8385 [HTML]